INTRODUCTION:

The term cosmetics define as “products intended to be applied to the external parts of the human body such as epidermis, hair, nails, lips and external genital organs¹. The term “cosmeceuticals”, by Kilgman which derives from a combination of “cosmetics” and “pharmaceuticals”, and was popularized^2, refers to cosmetic products with drug-like benefits. Even though the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FD and C Act) does not recognize this term, it is widely used in the cosmetic industry.

Active ingredients in cosmeceutical such as vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, enzymes, which exist in various types of formulations such as creams, lotions, and ointments^3. These natural bioactive substances can derive from miscellaneous sources such as terrestrial plants, microorganisms, and marine organisms. These substances which have myriad of functional roles including those with effective role on human health which can promote healthy skin, hair, and nails at cellular levels^4. Even though the plant-derived ingredients are still very popular and widely used as cosmeceuticals, they also have some limitations because plants generally grow too slowly and their chemical composition differ from season to season. Oppositely, marine flora and fauna not only produce chemically unique biomolecules not found in terrestrial resources but also can be grown rapidly in large quantities and cost effective by modern aquaculture techniques⁵.

History of marine cosmetics:

Earth consists of 70% water, so it comes as no revelation that manufacturers are searching for new sources of ingredients from oceans and fresh water sources. The oceans have borne most of the biological activities on our planet. The Ocean is consider as the mother of life and it is held that the most primative forms of life originated from the "primordial soup" and harbors a huge diversity of marine organisms that are differ in their physiology and adaptations. Recently feisty landscape, researchers are focusing on a new generation of high tech cosmetics that utilize ingredients sourced from the ocean. The marine resource bioactive substance have useful roles as natural skin care agents, and these properties can be applied to the improvement of new cosmetics. The studies on the general aspects of the chemical structures, physical and biochemical properties and biotechnological applications of bioactive substances derived from marine organisms. Review, focused recent progresses in the biotechnological applications of bioactive substances from marine organisms as cosmetics^6.

Benefits of marine cosmetic:⁶

· Marine ingredients are picking up steam in skin care, as they offer a variety of benefits, more advanced scientifically and eco-friendly.

· Marine ingredients can help provide vitamins and minerals to skin, UV and antioxidant protection, anti-aging benefits and more.

· The harvesting and preserving of marine ingredients has become more intricate over the past several decades, helping to make more effective as well as more environment friendly ingredients.

· The human body needs substitute of materials such as zinc, phosphorous, calcium and magnesium on a daily basis because sea water contains the body's idyllic balance of minerals.

· The marine drug is rich source of biological and chemical diversity.

· Marine ingredients have antioxidant properties that have been used in skin-care products to prevent or even restore the damage caused by environmental factors, such as UV rays and low humidity, as well as damage allied with the aging process.

· Marine consequent proteins which can provide equivalents to collagen and gelatin without the associated risks are becoming more popular among consumers because of their abundant health beneficial effects.

· Most marine bioactive peptides are currently underutilized. While fish and shellfish are possibly the most evident sources of such proteins and peptides, there is also scope for further development of proteins and peptides from source like algae, sea cucumber and mollusks.

· The anti-oxidant properties help the skin cells in fighting all the free radicals that are produced as a result of radiation and chemical exposure to sun.

· It helps in restoring the normal hydration of skin cells that prevent the signs of aging and protect against wrinkle formation.

· Promotes natural cleansing of skin by opening pores; there by helps in restoring shining clear skin besides rehydration and regeneration skin cells.

Cosmeceutical from marine origin:

The biodiversity of the marine environment is a major significantly source of a huge chemical diversity with a great potential for industrial development for pharmaceuticals, cosmeceuticals, nutritional supplements, molecular probes, fine chemicals, and agrochemicals. Moreover, with so many new marine species still to be discovered, more research efforts will be needed to appreciate the vast potentialities that marine environment has to offer. Marine organisms have evolved biochemical and physiological mechanisms that include the production of bioactive compounds necessary for reproduction, communication, and protection against predation, infection, and competition^7.These compounds have a great potential as cosmeceuticals or nutricosmetics due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antiaging, anti-wrinkle, anti-tyrosinase, MMP inhibitory activities as well as UV protection^8.

Macroalgae-Derived Compound:

Aside from being used as cosmeceuticals, marine brown and red algae are also used cosmeceuticals in cosmetic products. Traditionally, macroalgae or seaweeds have been used in the production of phycocolloids such as agar, carrageenan, and alginates. Furthermore, some types of brown and red macroalgae are used in cosmetics due to their vitamins, minerals, amino acids, sugars, and lipids content, in addition to the presence of other biologically active compounds⁹. Macroalgae commonly used in cosmetics are Ulva lactuca, Ascophyllum nodosum, Laminaria longicruris, L. saccharina, L. digitata, Alaria esculenta, Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus, and various species of Porphyra. Normally, algae respond to many stress factors, to which they are exposed in natural environments, by the production of a variety of chemical compounds for their defense. Many of these compounds are considered valuable as cosmeceuticals for skincare for protection against UV radiation, oxidative stress and aging, smoothening, moisturizing and whitening, and also as pigments for many cosmetic products. The functional products of macroalgae have been used for decades by the cosmetic industry as emollients, skin conditioning agents, and viscosity controlling ingredients, mainly due to their physicochemical properties. Their bulk products, such as agar and carrageenan, have been used as gelling, thickening, and stabilizer in cosmetic products as well as nutraceuticals^10.

Marine-Derived Sponge:

Marine sponges are considered as become valuable sources of microbial diversity, which can provide a new avenue in marine biotechnology^11. This is evidenced by the fact that many sponge-derived metabolites resemble bacterial and fungal natural products or belong to the class of compounds typically produced by these microorganisms. Some reports have confirmed that some compounds, originally isolated from marine sponge extracts, are in fact biosynthesized by sponge-associated microorganisms, since the sponge mesohyl is usually inhabited by microbes, and many natural products isolated from the marine sponges such as antibiotics, antifungal, and antipredator or antifouling compounds seem to be metabolites produced by marine microbe. In the case of bacteria, they provide their hosts with products of their metabolism, thereby granting the sponges an access to bacteria-specific traits such as autotrophy, nitrogen fixation, and nitrification. These bacteria can also process metabolic waste compounds that stabilize the sponge skeleton and provide protection against UV radiation ^[12]. In turn, marine sponges also release enzymes to compete for the ground, to delay the growth of bacteria and fungi to present hosting from uninvited guests, and these enzymes can be used as skin-whitening agents in several cosmetic formulations^13.

Coral-Derived Compound:

Due to the enormous benefits of coral powder used in cosmetic products because of its physical, chemical and textural characteristics as well as its mineral content^6. Chemically, it is composed mainly of calcium carbonate but may contain about 74 other minerals, except heavy metals. Coral powder is used for a topical application which give the minerals for the skin, to protect against UV radiation and also as antioxidant, antiaging, antiacne, skin softening, as well as for the preparation of lipsticks and deodorants .Although only few coral secondary metabolites have found their use as cosmeceuticals, the diterpene glycosides pseudopterosins A–D (34–37), isolated from the Caribbean Gorgonian coral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae, are the most observable marine natural products in the cosmetic industry¹⁵. These compounds possess a variety of biological activities ranging from anti-inflammatory and analgesic antibacterial antiacne to wound healing. These compounds are the first commercially licensed natural products for use as an additive in Estée Lauder skincare and anti-wrinkle cosmetic product^{16, 17.}

Sea Cucumber-Derived compound:

Sea cucumbers are also rich in bioactive compounds such as saponins, chondroitin sulfate, collagen, vitamins, amino acids, phenols, triterpene glycosides, carotenoids, bioactive peptides, minerals, fatty acids, and gelatin. Among the health benefits of sea cucumbers are wound healing, neuroprotective, antitumor, anticoagulant, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties¹⁸.The sea cucumber extracts are rich in vitamins A, B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), and minerals (calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, selenium, germanium, strontium, copper, manganese) that can be used as cosmeceuticals or nutricosmetics. The vitamins and minerals in sea cucumber extracts are easy to be absorbed and provide moisture while stimulating the renovation of damaged skin cells. The research conducted on the Red Sea cucumber (Stichopus japonicus) extract showed a remarkable inhibition of melanogenesis in melanoma and inhibited the expression of tyrosinase and tyrosinase-related proteins (TYRP-1 and TYRP-2). The ethyl acetate fraction of the S. japonicus extract inhibited melanogenesis in murine melanoma cells, decreasing the protein level of the melanocyte-specific isoform of the tyrosinase-related genes^19.Evaluation of the skin-whitening effects of the extracts of Sanguisorba officinalis and Stichopus japonicus showed that the extract of S. japonicus exhibited 61.78% inhibition of tyrosinase activity, while the mixture of both extracts showed 59.14% inhibition. Interestingly, the mixture of both extracts displayed a notable inhibition of melanogenesis in the clone M-3 cell melanocyte^20.

Marine Microorganisms-Derived Compound:

Marine microorganisms, including fungi, fungi-like protists, and bacteria have attracted great attention as potential lead compound producers^21,22. Despite a relatively small number of the species of these organisms being studied so far, thousands of compounds have been isolated and identified, among which only a small percentage has been investigated for their potential as commercially useful products^23.

Microalgae-Derived Compound:

The diversity of microalgae makes them a rich source of bioactive compounds with potential applications as nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals. Microalgae also constitute major food products, mainly for animal feed due to their fatty acids, tocopherols, sterols, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and pigments (e.g., chlorophyll and carotenoids) contents²⁴. Microalgae, including Chlorella, Spirulina, Dunaliella, and Odontella species have also been used as ingredients in cosmetics. In terms of cosmeceuticals, microalgae are of great interest as some of them synthesize substances that absorb UV radiation, which can prevent dermal ECM deterioration, wrinkles, laxity, coarseness, and mottled pigmentation of the skin. For example, the cyanobacterial sunscreen pigment scytonemin absorbs UVA/UVB radiation more efficiently than a commercial formulation. Scytonemin is produced by several cyanobacteria such as Nostoc sp., Calothrix crustacean, or Chlorogloeopsis sp.²⁵ Another well-known carotenoid produced by microalgae is astaxanthin This compound has been extensively studied for its effective role in skin health as well as for its photoprotective effects against UV radiation^26.

Marine Bacteria-Derived Compound:

Marine bacteria are found on the surface of the sea but decrease in number with increasing depth, and most of them are associated with organic particles or zooplanktons as their substrate. Marine bacteria are prolific producers of secondary metabolites for their own defense against other microorganisms as they thrive in harsh oceanic climates, and these secondary metabolites can serve as a good source of bioactive compounds^27. A large number of bacterial bioactive secondary metabolites have high commercial value and have found their place in pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries. Indeed, many compounds derived from marine bacteria such as alkaloids, peptides, proteins, lipids, mycosporines, and MAAs, glycosides, and isoprenoids exhibit photoprotective, antiaging, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and moisturizing activities^28.

Among the bioactive compounds with antiaging activity of the marine origin, polysaccharides (PSs) are one of the most exploited cosmeceutical products^29, and bacteria are the most favorable organisms for the production of higher PSs^30.Deepsane, an exopolysaccharide derived from the marine bacterium Alteromonas macleodii, is commercially available under the name Abyssine® for soothing and reducing the irritation of sensitive skin against chemical, mechanical, and UVB aggression^31.

Marine Fungi-Derived Compound:

Numerous marine-derived fungi produce secondary metabolites with cosmeceutical potential. For example, Phaeotheca triangularis, Trimmatostroma salinum, Hortaea werneckii, Aureobasidium pullulans, and Cryptococcus liquefaciens are known to produce MAAs^32. The benzodiazepine alkaloids, circumdatins I, C, and G isolated from the culture of the marine sponge-associated fungus Exophiala sp. (Family: Herpotrichiellaceae) displayed more potent UVA protecting activity than the positive control oxybenzone, which is currently used in sunscreen formulations^33.

Yeasts-Derived Compound:

Several genera of yeasts, namely Rhodotorula, Phaffia, and Xanthophyllomyces are known to produce astaxanthin. The yeasts produce lower amounts of astaxanthin in compared to other organisms such as algae, they have several advantages over other organisms, since they have higher growth rates, easier cultivation conditions, and can be genetically modified or by gene target uncovering to increase carotenoid production rates^34,35,36.

Marine Resources as a Source of Excipients and Additives for Cosmetics

Preservatives

Preservatives must be added to cosmetic products to prevent alteration and to exclude microbial contamination. In this context, it is extremely important to develop new and safe antimicrobial preservatives^37,
38.

Among anti-microbial compounds of marine origin, macroalgae and microalgae extracts are promising. Studies highlight the inhibiting properties of extracts of macroalgae Himanthalia elongate and Synechocystis spp. regarding Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus^39. Extracts from microalgae Isochrysis galbana, Chlorella marina, Nannochloropsis oculata, Dunaliella salina and Pavlova lutheri showed some activity against bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Klebsiella pneumoniae^40.

Essential Oil

Crithmum maritimum L. is a halophyte plant which grows on coastlines. Crithmum maritimum L. contains a combination a substances that gives to its essential oil its distinctive fragrance—lemony (due to p-cymene) but also slightly musty, of camphor and sandalwood (due to dillapiole)^{41, 42.}

Antioxidant

Antioxidants provide protection against the pro-oxidative in human skin exposed to UV radiation. Antioxidants have a protective effect on human skin as they prevent damage caused by UV-induced ROS which attack membrane lipids, proteins, and DNA, such as superoxide anion, hydroxyl radicals, and H₂O₂. The marine bacteria, yeast and fungi are an important source of carotenoids^{45, 46.} As an example, astaxanthin, is produced by different bacteria such as Paracoccus and Agrobacterium and different yeast species, notably the following genera Rhodotorula, Phaffia, Xanthophyllomyces. Although the production from yeasts and bacteria is lower compared to algae, yeasts have higher growth rates, easier cultivation conditions and can be genetically modified to increase carotenoid production rates.

Dyes

Among pigments described in algae and cyanobacteria, phycobiliproteins are of great interest due to their fluorescent properties^48,49. Currently, the red microalga Porphyridium cruentum and the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis are the main sources of phycoerythrin and phycocyanin, respectively.

The diatom Haslea ostrearia has a characteristic extraplastidial color due to the accumulation of a water-soluble blue pigment to the cell apex: the marennine. This diatom is notably present in oyster refining tanks. The blue-green marennine pigment they produce is fixed in oyster gills and gives them their characteristic green color obtained after ripening. The exact nature of marennine is still unclear despite numerous biochemical characterization tests. However, it has been shown that marennine is neither carbohydrate nor protein. It would rather be a polyphenolic molecule⁵⁰.

Collection of marine compounds:

Collecting marine samples can range from very simple and inexpensive to very complicate expensive. Samples from near or on shores are readily accessible via beach combing, wading or snorkeling. Sample collection from deep water can be completed via dredging however, this is a very invasive technique which destroys the local habitat, does not allow for repeated sampling from the same location and compromises sample integrity^51,
52.Corers can be used for sediment sample collection from deep locations quickly, easily and inexpensively. SCUBA diving was introduced in the 1940s however; it was not widely used until it became popular in the 1970s. SCUBA diving is limited in the duration that divers can spend underwater when conducted from the surface. If prolonged dives were necessary, an underwater laboratory could be used. Aquarius is the only underwater laboratory dedicated to marine science^{53, 54}. For sample collection from depths that cannot be achieved by SCUBA diving, submersibles may be used.

Extraction, separation, isolation and purification of marine compounds

The freeze-dried marine organisms are soaked in a solvent of medium polarity. The solvents of choice are methanol and acetone. Crude extracts from marine organisms often contain complex mixtures of a number of compounds that need several sequential purification steps. Usually the first step is a liquid solvent partitioning procedure. One of the most used is the Kupchan⁵¹ procedure that uses solvents with increasing polarity, affording enriched extracts. Medium pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) on different stationary phases (adsorption chromatography with silica gel, or reverse phase chromatography with RP8 or RP18 phases) and exclusion chromatography on e.g. LH-20 and LH-60 supports are effective for a first-stage fractionation. Liquid-liquid chromatography without supported stationary phases such as droplet countercurrent chromatography and centrifugal partitioning chromatography are very efficient in assuring a good level of purification of polar extracts with a complete recovery of the material, avoiding the problem of the irreversible adsorption experienced when traditional supported stationary phases are used. The last step of purification is done by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), which allows obtaining compounds with a high degree of purity.

Extraction, separation, isolation and purification of marine compounds:

The freeze-dried marine organisms are soaked in a solvent of medium polarity. The solvents of choice are methanol and acetone. Crude extracts from marine organisms often contain complex mixtures of a number of compounds that need several sequential purification steps^55,56. Usually the first step is a liquid solvent partitioning procedure. One of the most used is the Kupchan procedure that uses solvents with increasing polarity, affording enriched extracts. Medium pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) on different stationary phases (adsorption chromatography with silica gel, or reverse phase chromatography with RP8 or RP18 phases) and exclusion chromatography on e.g. LH-20 and LH-60 supports are effective for a first-stage fractionation. Liquid-liquid chromatography without supported stationary phases such as droplet countercurrent chromatography and centrifugal partitioning chromatography are very efficient in assuring a good level of purification of polar extracts with a complete recovery of the material, avoiding the problem of the irreversible adsorption experienced when traditional supported stationary phases are used. The last step of purification is done by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), which allows obtaining compounds with a high degree of purity^57,58.

CONCLUSION:

Due to the numerous health benefits of marine-derived cosmetic ingredients, their wide range of applications in the cosmetic industry have attracted the interest of cosmetic companies. Currently, there are various marine-derived cosmetic actives that can be used for cosmetic purposes. Researchers are focused on the development of new cosmetic products that are made with ingredients derived from the marine. Bioactive substances are natural skin care agents that can be used to improve the appearance of cosmetic products.

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Received on 09.09.2021 Accepted on 21.05.2022

Research J. Topical and Cosmetic Sci. 2022; 13(2):92-98.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5844.2022.00015